Archaeology in Mozambique

Blog Post 28 November 2025. Photo: Zimbabwe of Manyikeni, Mozambique 1978: the author (standing foreground centre), Paul Sinclair (standing background right) and Ricardo T. Duarte (sitting). Photo by João Morais.

[Work in progress]

The Study of the Past in Mozambique: An Historical Review

1. The Source Material

2. Changing Landscapes

3. The Earliest Mozambicans

4. Modern Humans

5. New Cultural Frontiers

6. From Foragers to Farmers

7. Coastal Trading Towns

Archaeology demonstrates that all modern humans share a common African ancestry, evolving in a continent with the longest record of humanity on Earth. But we must dig deeper: fundamental questions such as 'Where do we come from'' and 'How and why did we got here' require a thorough understanding of society and nature beyond singular bones and artefacts. In parallel with groundbreaking scientific developments in the last few decades, archaeology is now fully interdisciplinary combining historical and anthropological records, radiometric dating, genetics, archaeometry and geophysical methods. Following the revolutionary application of radiocarbon dating of organic materials in the 1950's, newer dating techniques are currently being used on a wide range of inorganic materials such as rocks and minerals: potassium-argon, uranium series, fission track, optically stimulated luminescence and accelerator mass spectrometry, among others. Today, the new science of the deep past is inherently a transdisciplinary field that relies on collaboration with wide-ranging expertise in geology, biology, botany, climatology, geophysics, geochemistry and cyber, non-invasive, processes (e.g. AI, 3-D modelling, LiDAR) allowing to directly ‘decipher’ past remains using applications such as ancient DNA of genetic material, micro botanical data and digital technologies, ultimately integrating academic and societal knowledge for real-world impact.

1. The Source Material

1.1. Historical references

Portuguese explorers and settlers left a vast body of primary documentation for Southeastern Africa from the late 15th century onward. Through the eyewitness testimonies of government officials, missionaries, merchants, and navigators, these records offer invaluable insights into the social, cultural, and political traditions of local communities, covering the coast and hinterland between the Cape of Good Hope and Mombasa, including present-day Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Tanzania. The documentary sources include several volumes of "Documentos sobre os Portugueses em Moçambique e na Africa Central" covering the period 1497 to 1560, the roughly contemporary narratives of the "Historia Trágico-Maritima" and the complementary volumes "Records of South Eastern Africa" and "The Portuguese in South Africa" (Theal 1964 and 1969). The first contacts of the Portuguese in the Cape Province of South Africa (1486) and in the Natal coast (1497-1499) reveal the presence of several hunter-gatherer and pastoral communities of Khoe-Kwadi speakers, and provide details on their appearance, housing, clothing, diet, implements and ornaments, as well the type of cattle and sheep they raised. Supplementary reference to the coastal to hinterland trade network describe a wider geographic distribution of foraging communities by 1512, at least as far as the Zimbabwean plateau, which may also have included BaTwa foragers in areas North of that region.

Competition between the newcomers and the influential Arab mercantile establishments on the coast at Sofala and Mozambique Island illustrate the fact that pre-Portuguese interchange was already consolidated among most of the seaside populations particularly North of Sofala, transactions which are documented by early arab writers at least from the 9th to the 15th centuries (e.g. Al-Masʿūdī, Al-Idrīsī, Ibn Battūṭa). From late 15th century several Portuguese records provide first-hand information (e.g. ‘the fortress of the King of Menomotapa [...] made of stone [...] without mortar’, as described by António Fernandes in 1511) while reporting on trading activities along the south-eastern coastal areas and, particularly, from Sofala to the Zimbabwean plateau. Such descriptions highlight how farmers and their rulers operated, along with information on production, distribution, technological systems and crafts, including housing, settlement patterns, mining procedures, trading routes as well as political competition, namely between the Mwene Mutapa and Rozvi states strugling for regional leadership. Furthermore, the sources also contribute in interpreting long-lasting historical processes among major present-day ethnic groups. This is the case for the connotation of a Karanga (Shona) minor entity among the Thonga in the Inhambane region. At least one document dated from 1501 establishes dissimilarities between the "Mocaranga" and the "Botonga", which propounds the former as an earlier and specialized community still surviving in the contemporary Guambe chieftainship in southern Mozambique. Continental trade included copper in exchange for cloth, which was obtained at the coast in exchange for ivory. Beyond elephant hunting, regular livelihood included agriculture mainly performed by women, cattle-raising, and fishing with spears in dug-out canoes. Among some of the most distinct features for the Thonga was the manufacture of fabrics and containers out of tree bark and the utilization of bows and arrows which may suggest an ancient cultural presence of Khoe-Kwadi speakers among this group. Further South in the Maputo Bay and inland region the early accounts cover the period 1552-1554 and provide details concerning trade (mainly ivory beads and cloth), housing and settlement patterns, valuable to the the study of the evolution of chieftainships such as the Inhaca, "Zembe" (Tembe), "Rumo" (Fumo), "Domanhica" (Manhica) and Lebombo.

1.2. Early archaeological and ethnological work

First-hand Portuguese documentation reflect emerging geopolitical interests as well as a sense of ‘Renaissance curiosity’ that the early travellers had towards new civilisations being ‘discovered’ to the world. Beyond their written accounts a number of ethnographic collections would have reached Portugal and were offered by the crown to the ‘cabinet of curiosities’ assembled at the Vatican by the influential naturalist Michele Mercati (1541-1593). The existence of the relics, only disclosed in 1717, may in turn explain the enthusiastic announcement four years later (1721) by the Bishop of Mozambique to the new Royal Academy of Portuguese History in Lisbon the discovery of pictographs in his diocese, the first known announcement of African rock art to the world.

This extemporaneous interest will only be revived much later in the 19th century as part of the European "scramble for Africa" when ethnographic accounts regain momentum. However, contrary to what one would expect, the Portuguese colonial take-over did not prioritise cultural heritage management in the same way as the neighbouring British colonies, regardless of the establishment in Mozambique in 1943 of a somewhat innefective ‘Commission on Monuments and Historical Relics’. The reason for this attitude lies in the modest role of archaeology and museology within Portugal itself as the metropolitan power. It is also rooted in the lack of scientific training and formal institutions, and the perceived absence of spectacular Mozambican monuments, such as Great Zimbabwe, or early human fossils comparable to the 1924 Taung find in South Africa. Until 1930, research was limited to surveys of border regions carried out by foreign scholars, who focused specifically on rock paintings and associated assemblages such as the ones at Chifumbaze shelter in Tete and the Niamara stone wall in Manica1. Following Salazar’s nationalistic reforms and influenced by the 1st Congress of Colonial Anthropology (Porto, 1934), the newly formed 'Mozambican Ethnographical and Anthropological Mission' conducted six fieldwork campaigns between 1936 and 1957 2 which occasionally included collaboration with visiting archaeologists from South Africa 3. More importantly, during the two decades leading up to Mozambican independence in 1975, public interest stimulated a surge in fieldwork initiatives by a growing number of scholars, laying the groundwork for subsequent research 4.

1.3. A new vision of the past: the ‘Archaeological Survey Programme’ (1975-1985)

To assist with scientific rescue work at the Massingir Dam site the first Archaeological Unit is established in 1973 at the Department of Earth Sciences, Instituto de Investigação Científica de Moçambique (IICM) 5. Following independence in 1975 African Prehistory is introduced into the university syllabus 6 and new history schoolbooks, regular reporting on research outcomes is provided to the media and the general public, namely with the printing of a postal stamp collection displaying major archaeological sites. Considering the absence of museology dealing with the human past - beyond the Natural History Museum founded in 1913 in Maputo and the decaying National Museum of Ethnography in Nampula founded in 1956 – the new National Museums and Antiquities Services is created in Nampula and archaeological surveys initiated in the Province 7. The Archaeological Unit assisted with specific capacity-building tasks in support of the new ‘Agentes de Cultura’ (district culture delegates).

In 1976 the African Studies Centre (CEA) is founded at the IICM and the Archaeological Unit placed under its administration, taking over the premisses of the extinct Earth Sciences department and associated laboratories 8. The Unit’s emerging archaeological ‘vision’ aimed to contribute to the new nation’s requirements for: (i) a knowledge-based historical identity; (ii) evidence-based education; and (iii) national cultural awareness. In support of these goals, multiple initiatives were launched to define a pioneering archaeological survey programme, with the primary objective of documenting Mozambique's extensive precolonial heritage 9. Among other initiatives, important work was initiated at Matola and products of the emerging investigation made available through extensive public media and scientific reporting 10.

In 1977 on the grounds of non-complementary research agendas and methodologies, the governance of the Archaeological Unit is transferred to IICM and soon thereafter instituted under the Faculty of Arts as the new Archaeology Department 11. During two seasons (1976-1977) research work is conducted at the stone enclosure at Manyikeni as new archaeologists join in from abroad 12. During 1978 a major Swedish research grant (the first of UEM's external funding for subsequent decades) is allocated for the “Archaeological Survey of Mozambique” project. The initial Swedish partners are the Swedish National Heritage Board and, from 1980, Uppsala University. Among other sites (e.g. Matola, University Campus, Zitundo) fieldwork is conducted at Manyikeni 13 where an Open-Air Museum was inaugurated under increasing war risk, from landmines to enemy (i.e. Rhodesian) helicopters flying for surveillance over the site and the museum building burned down during civil war in the late 80’s. A dedicated effort is made to continuing providing information to schoolbooks and media reporting. Over this period extensive surveys are also implemented in the Save-Vilanculos bay region and Niassa 14. Considering the growing need of interdisciplinary research and in the absence of a ‘home’ at UEM, the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology (the present DAA) is established in 1979 and Trabalhos de Arqueologia e Antropologia, the new departmental publication, is launched 15 . During two seasons in 1978 and 1979 archaeological fieldwork is carried out in the northern coastal regions at Murrupula, Mossuril, Ilha de Moçambique and Ibo 16.

During the period 1980-1985 the Swedish National Heritage Board assigns to DAA, for limited time-periods, osteologist Leif Jonsson, marine archaeologist Per-Inge Lindqvist and archaeologists N. and G. Nydolf. Late in 1983 Ricardo T. Duarte returns to Maputo, joining the DAA to conduct research in northern Mozambique. During this period, when survey work more than doubled previously known sites, new fieldwork is implemented in the south at Daimane, Ponta Dundo, Zitundo, University Campus, among others. In order to complement T. Cruz e Silva groundwork at Matola, the site is re-excavated by J. Morais, L. Jonsson and P-I. Lindqvist, aiming at enlarging collections and reassess dates. Following earlier work in Northern Mozambique (T.C.Silva and P.Sinclair), L. Adamowicz conducted archaeological surveys at 92 sites, namely at Chakota, Riane, Muse and Namolepiwa rock-shelters, the Nakwaho site providing the first occurrence of grindstones associated with early farming. In 1981 the first computer is installed (an IBM PC 5150) and a thematic library regularly updated. Notwithstanding considerable progress, particularly later into the 80’s with increasing civil war and unrest (1977-1992), the fieldwork component of the 'Archaeological Survey Programme' gradually comes to an halt. The head of department was João Morais until leaving Mozambique in 1884, being replaced by Ricardo T. Duarte.

1.4. Research work in the last few decades.

From 1980, in the challenging context of the civil war (1977-1992), Mozambican archaeology underwent a transition from broad regional surveys (the ‘Archaeological Survey Programme’) to more specialized site excavations closer to urban centers away from the conflict zones. This period also provided the context for critical review of archaeological theories and methods 17. Despite security constraints, research into the origin of the early peopling of Mozambique continued in southern, central and northern regions. Notable southern sites include Matola, University Campus, Chongoene, Xai-Xai, Bilene, Siaia, Caimane, Zitundo, Inhaca, Tembe and Nhachengue, the central sites of Manyikeni and Chibuene, and the northern sites of Xakota, Nakwaho, Riane, Muse, Muhekane, Namikopo, and Namolepiwa, to name a few.

Following the end of the civil war, the past three decades have seen a steady buildup of human and scientific capacity. This began with the introduction of a BA degree in archaeology in the 1990s, which includes since 2011 a Cultural Heritage Management component. In 1994 the Government of Mozambique enacted law n° 2/94 which established specific legal protections for cultural heritage and created the framework requiring developers to fund rescue archaeology for any development projects that might impact archaeological sites. This legislation significantly transformed the sector by creating a commercial market for private archaeological companies and requiring a high level of academic competence from civil servants working within the National Directorate for Cultural Heritage and associated national archive (ARPAC). Although Eduardo Mondlane University is presently the only institution providing a undergraduate degree in archaeology, there has been an active research component node of DAA based at Mozambique Island notable for maritime archaeology research work (CAIRIM). Archaeological competence at the postgraduate (MA and PhD) levels has steadily expanded, particularly in the last few decades, with a growing number of alumni (João Morais 1987, Ricardo T. Duarte 1993, Paula Meneses 1999; Solange Macamo 2005, Hilário Madiquida 2015, Albino Jopela 2017, Mussa Raja 2020, Celso Simbine 2021, Cézar Mahumane 2024, Omar Madime 2024, Décio Muianga 2025). In addition to age-old cooperation through Swedish aid (Sida) and Uppsala University (notably through P. Sinclair and A. Ekblom, among others), current partners include UNESCO (for underwater heritage work at Mozambique Island) the Norwegian development cooperation (NORAD), the German Archaeological Institute as well as a number of Foundations and universities namely of Algarve, Bergen, Calgary, Hamburg through their team leaders, respectively N. Bicho, T. Saetersdal, J. Mercader, N. Babucic and coworkers. It is through bilateral cooperation with universities and funding agencies abroad that the new generation of mozambican archaeologists and anthropologists have been enrolled for postgraduate studies.

(to be continued...)

1 Carl Wiese in 1907, with pottery described in the 1970’s by David Phillipson as the *Chifumbaze complex’; and H. A. Wieschoff in 1930, as part of the 9th Frobenius Institute expedition to Niamara; There is however an earlier report in 1915 by E.J. Wayland regarding an odd stone tool from Búzi river sent in 1913 to J. Leite de Vasconcelos (director of the Ethnographic Museum officially opened in 1906 in Lisbon).

2 Prominent members included J.R. Santos Júnior and A. Mendes Correia; notably, Jorge and Margot Dias conducted seminal work among the Makonde in the late 50’s.

3 van Riet Lowe, L.H. Wells and the French scholar H. Breuil.

4 Major names include M. Bettencourt Dias, Lereno Barradas, Simões Alberto, Rosa de Oliveira, A. Rita-Ferreira, R. Dickenson, G. Liesegang, G. Smolla, M. Korfmann, R. Derricourt, Soares de Castro, Amaro Monteiro, C. Ervedosa and M. Ramos, among others.

5 The Unit was established by Prof. G. Soares de Carvalho and included Teresa Cruz e Silva, Ricardo and Maria da Luz T. Duarte, João Morais, all involved with the Massingir project; and briefly J. Senna Martinez (b. 1948 - d. 2022) before leaving the country in 1976. The work was published in Memórias IICT,10-B, 1974. Professor Revil Mason provided valuable guidance from Witwatersrand University where R.T. Duarte and J. Morais carried out comparative studies of archaeological collections during a two-month scholarship.

6 In parallel with their work at the Archaeological Unit, João Morais and Ricardo T. Duarte were appointed junior lecturers of African Prehistory at the History Department, Faculty of Arts, where Teresa Cruz e Silva also lectures from 1976.

7 Ricardo and Maria da Luz T. Duarte pioneered this initiative from 1976, rescuing the National Museum of Ethnography in Nampula from critical plundering of its assets. The Museum was originally created by A.J. Soares de Castro in 1956 following seminal work by Jorge and Margot Dias among the Makonde.

8 Aquino de Bragança was appointed director of the CEA and the Archaeological Unit integrated as an additional research body with João Morais as head of unit. The present department of Archaeology and Anthropology inherited the premisses of the extinct Earth Sciences Department.

9 for a detailed description of the undertaking see J. Morais, The Early Farming Communities of Southern Mozambique, 1988: 48-58.

10 c.f. J. Morais, Prehistoric Research in Moçambique: the earlier research, the present projects, plans and proposals, 1976, which includes reports from T. Cruz e Silva, R. Duarte and J. Senna Martinez.

11 with agreement from director Aquino de Bragança and rector Fernando Ganhão the governance of the unit is placed under IICM’s director Pedro Alcântara and soon thereafter transferred to the Faculty of Arts (director Manuel Araújo) as a new Archaeology Department, a transition process managed by J. Morais.

12 The Manyikeni site is excavated by J. Morais and P. Garlake. The new co-workers included Michael (b. 1949 - d. 1999) and June Stephen starting from 1976 to 1979 (before leaving for Swaziland in 1979), Paul Sinclair (b. 1949 - d. 2023) starting in 1977, previously working in Zimbabwe, who acted as principal investigator until leaving in 1980 for Uppsala University, and Leonard Adamowicz (b.1945 - d. 2020) starting in 1980, from Poland.

13 by J. Morais and P. Sinclair

14 by T. Cruz e Silva, P. Sinclair, A. Loforte and, for shorter periods, J. Morais at Chibuene, Hola-Hola, Bazaruto, Ponta Dundo and Marrape sites while concurrently M. and J. Stephen conducted survey work at Maua cave in Niassa.

15 Ana Loforte and Christian Geffray (from France) join DAA. During the academic year 1979-1980 J. Morais initiated doctoral work at the University of Oxford, and Ana Loforte replaced him during the period as head of department.

16 Work implemented by T. Cruz e Silva and P. Sinclair

17 See J. Morais “Mozambican Archaeology: Past and Present.” African Archaeological Review 2 (1984)