Archaeology in Mozambique

Blog Post 28 November 2025

Photo: Zimbabwe of Manyikeni, Mozambique 1978: the author (standing foreground centre), Paul Sinclair (standing background right) and Ricardo Duarte (sitting). Photo by João Morais.

[Work in progress]

Abstract: A review of scientific outcomes and institutional memory (1975-2025) in commemoration of the 'golden anniversary' of the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Eduardo Mondlane University 1

Archaeological sciences demonstrate that all modern humans share a common African ancestry, initially evolving in a continent with the longest record of humanity on Earth. But we must dig deeper: fundamental questions such as 'Where do we come from'' and 'How and why did we got here' require a thorough understanding of society and nature beyond singular bones and artefacts. In parallel with groundbreaking scientific developments in the last few decades, the new science of a deeper past is now fully interdisciplinary combining historical and anthropological records, radiometric dating, genetics, archaeometry and non-invasive geophysical methods. Following the revolutionary application of radiocarbon dating of organic materials in the 1950's, newer dating techniques are currently used on a wide range of inorganic materials such as rocks and minerals: potassium-argon, uranium series, fission track, optically stimulated luminescence and accelerator mass spectrometry, among others. Today archaeology is an inherently transdisciplinary field that relies on collaboration with wide-ranging expertise in geology, biology, botany, climatology, geophysics, geochemistry and computer sciences making it possible to directly ‘decipher’ findings from ancient DNA of genetic material to micro botanical data, ultimately integrating academic and societal knowledge for real-world impact.

The present work will cover (1) An historical review of the study of the past in Mozambique (2) Shaping the past: socio-environmental interactions and (3) Major findings and their interpretation.

1- An historical review of the study of the past in Mozambique: the source material

(i) written sources

Particularly relevant for for the last millennium the Portuguese left a considerable body of primary data for Southeastern Africa from the late 15th century onwards: eyewitness testimonies of government officers, priests, merchants and navigators the accounts provide valuable information of social and cultural traditions of past communities in the region. The documentary sources include several volumes of "Documentos sobre os Portugueses em Moçambique e na Africa Central" covering the period 1497 to 1560, the roughly contemporary narratives of the "Historia Trágico-Maritima" and the complementary volumes "Records of South Eastern Africa" and "The Portuguese in South Africa" (Theal 1964 and 1969). The first contacts of the Portuguese in the Cape Province of South Africa (1486) and in the Natal coast (1497-1499) reveal the presence of several hunter-gatherer and pastoral communities of Khoe-Kwadi linguistic expression, and provide details on their appearance, housing, clothing, diet, implements and ornaments, as well the type of cattle and sheep they raised. Supplementary reference to the coastal to hinterland trade network reveal a wider geographic distribution of such communities by 1512, at least as far as the Zimbabwean plateau, which may also have included BaTwa foragers in areas North of that region.

Competition between the newcomers and the influential Arab mercantile establishments on the coast at Sofala and Mozambique Island illustrate the fact that pre-Portuguese interchange was already well consolidated among most of the seaside populations particularly North of Sofala, transactions documented by early arab writers at least from the 9th to the 15th centuries (e.g. Al-Masʿūdī, Al-Idrīsī, Ibn Battūṭa). From late 15th century several Portuguese records provide detailed information ranging from ‘the fortress of the King of Menomotapa [...] made of stone [...] without mortar’ (António Fernandes in 1511) to communities involved in trade from Sofala to the Zimbabwean plateau. Such descriptions provide evidence concerning production, distribution and technological systems and activities of farmers and their rulers, including housing, settlement patterns, mining procedures, trading routes as well as political competition for regional leadership between the Mwene Mutapa and Rozvi states. Furthermore, some of the sources also contribute in interpreting particular historical processes among major present-day ethnic groups. This is the case for the connotation of a Karanga (Shona) minor entity among the Thonga in the Inhambane region. At least one document dated from 1501 establishes dissimilarities between the "Mocaranga" and the "Botonga", which propounds the former as an earlier and specialized community still surviving in the contemporary Guambe chieftainship. Continental trade included copper in exchange for cloth, which was obtained at the coast in exchange for ivory. Beyond elephant hunting, regular livelihood included agriculture mainly performed by women, cattle-raising, and fishing with spears in dug-out canoes. Among some of the most distinct features for the Thonga was the manufacture of fabrics and containers out of tree bark and the utilization of bows and arrows which may suggest an ancient cultural presence of Khoe-Kwadi speakers among this group. Further South in the Maputo Bay and inland region, the early accounts cover the period 1552-1554 and provide details concerning trade (mainly ivory beads and cloth), housing and settlement patterns, valuable to the the study of the evolution of chieftainships such as the Inhaca, "Zembe" (Tembe), "Rumo" (Fumo), "Domanhica" (Manhica) and Lebombo.

(ii) Early archaeological and ethnological work.

First-hand Portuguese documentation reflect emerging geopolitical interests as well as some sense of ‘Renaissance curiosity’ the early travellers had towards new civilisations being ‘discovered’ to the world. Beyond their written accounts it is established that a number of ethnographic collections reached Portugal and beyond, namely 16th century artefacts offered to the ‘cabinet of curiosities’ made available at the Vatican by the influential naturalist Michael Mercati (1541-1593). The existence of the relics, only disclosed much later in 1717, may in turn explain the enthusiastic announcement in 1721 by the Bishop of Mozambique to the new Royal Academy of Portuguese History in Lisbon the discovery of rock paintings in his diocese, the first known announcement to the world of African rock art.

This extemporaneous interest will only be revived much later in the 19th century as part of the European "scramble for Africa" when ethnographic accounts regain momentum. However, contrary to what one would expect, the Portuguese colonial take-over did not prioritise cultural heritage management in the same way as the neighbouring British colonies, regardless of the establishment in Mozambique in 1943 of a somewhat innefective ‘Commission on Monuments and Historical Relics’. The reason for this attitude should be sought in the modest role of archaeology and museology within Portugal itself as the metropolitan power, the lack of scientific training and formal institutions of archaeology and the perceived scarcity of spectacular Mozambican monuments comparable to Great Zimbabwe. The only research carried out until 1930 was done by foreign scholars’ surveying border regions, particularly rock paintings and associated assemblages at Chifumbaze shelter in Tete and at Niamara stone wall in Manica2. Along with Salazar’s nationalistic reforms and influenced by the 1st Congress of Colonial Anthropology held in Porto in 1934 the newly formed ‘Mozambican Ethnographical and Anthropological Mission’ ran six fieldwork campaigns between 1936 and 1957 3 which included collaboration with visiting archaeologists from South Africa4. More importantly, the two last decades before Mozambican independence in 1975 public interest stimulated a growing number of fieldwork initiatives by an increasing number of scholars laying the ground to subsequent work 5.

(iii) A new vision of the past: the ‘Archaeological Survey Programme’ (1975- 1984)

To assist with scientific rescue work at the Massingir Dam site the first Archaeological Unit is established in the country in 1973 at the Department of Earth Sciences, Instituto de Investigação Científica de Moçambique (IICM)6. Following independence in 1975 African Prehistory is introduced to the university syllabus7 and to the new history schoolbooks, regular reporting on research outcomes provided to the media and to the general public, namely through the printing of a new postal stamp collection displaying major archaeological sites.

In the absence of museology dealing with the human past - beyond the Natural History Museum founded in 1913 in Maputo and the decaying National Museum of Ethnography in Nampula founded in 1956 – the new National Museums and Antiquities Services is established in Nampula and surveys initiated in the Province 8. The Archaeological Unit assists some of their work with specific capacity-building tasks in support of the new ‘Agentes de Cultura’ (district culture delegates).

In 1976 the African Studies Centre (CEA) is founded at the IICM 9. The Archaeological Unit is placed under CEA’s administration, taking over the premisses of IICM’s Earth Sciences department (still its main location to this date). The emerging archaeological ‘vision’ of the Unit is to actively contribute to the new nation's requirements regarding (i) a knowledge-based historical identity (ii) relevant school learning and (iii) wider public cultural awareness. To that effect several initiatives are launched from broad outreach to outlining a specific ‘mission’ setting the goals and objectives for a groundbreaking archaeological survey programme devoted to reveal the richness of Mozambique’s precolonial past 10. To this effect, among other initiatives, important work is done at Matola and products of the emerging investigation made available in a collection of articles 11.

In 1977 on the grounds of non-complementary research agendas, the governance of the Archaeological Unit is transferred to IICM and soon thereafter instituted under the Faculty of Arts as the new Archaeology Department12. During two seasons (1976-1977) research work is conducted at the stone enclosure at Manyikeni and new co-workers join in13.

During 1978 a major Swedish research grant (pioneering the substantial core support that the UEM will receive in subsequent decades) is allocated for the “Archaeological Survey of Mozambique” project. Swedish partners are initially the Swedish National Heritage Board and, from 1980, Uppsala University. Among other sites (e.g. Matola, University Campus, Zitundo) fieldwork is conducted at Manyikeni14where an Open-Air Museum is inaugurated under increasing war risk, from landmines to enemy/Rhodesian helicopters flying for surveillance over the site. A dedicated effort is made to continuing providing information to schoolbooks and media reporting. Over this period extensive surveys are also implemented in the Save-Vilanculos bay region and Niassa15. Considering the growing need of anthropological research and in the absence of a ‘home’ at UEM, the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology (the present DAA) is established16and a regular departmental publication is launched, Trabalhos de Arqueologia e Antropologia. During two seasons in 1978 and 1979 archaeological fieldwork is carried out in the northern coastal regions at Murrupula, Mossuril, Ilha de Moçambique and Ibo 17.

1980-1985: The Swedish National Heritage Board assigns to DAA, for limited time-periods, osteologist Leif Jonsson, marine archaeologist Per-Inge Lindqvist and archaeologists N. and G. Nydolf. Late in 1983 Ricardo T. Duarte returns to Maputo, joining the DAA to conduct research in northern Mozambique. During this period, when survey work more than doubled previously known sites, new fieldwork is implemented in the south at Daimane, Ponta Dundo, Zitundo, University Campus, among others. In order to complement T. Cruz e Silva groundwork at Matola, the site is re-excavated by J. Morais, L. Jonsson and P-I. Lindqvist, aiming at enlarging collections and reassess dates. Following earlier work in Northern Mozambique (T.C.Silva and P.Sinclair), L. Adamowicz conduct archaeological work surveying 92 sites, namely at Chakota, Riane, Muse and Namolepiwa rock-shelters, the Nakwaho site providing the first occurrence of grindstones associated with early farming. The first computer is installed (IBM PC 5150) and a well-supplied specialised library organised. Notwithstanding considerable progress, under increasing civil war and unrest (1977-1992) particularly later into the 80’s, the fieldwork component of the 'Archaeological Survey Programme' gradually comes to an halt. The head of department is João Morais until leaving Mozambique in 1884, being replaced by Ricardo T. Duarte.

(vi) Research work during the Mozambican Civil War (1980- 1992)

From 1980, in the challenging context of the civil war (1977-1992), Mozambican archaeology underwent a transition from broad regional surveys (the ‘Archaeological Survey Programme’) to more specialized site excavations closer to urban centers away from the conflict zones. This period also provided the context for critical review of archaeological theories and methods from colonial to postcolonial archaeology 18.

(... to be continued )...

1 Information partly abridged from J.M.F.Morais The Early Farming Communities of Souther Mozambique. In avoiding information overload, full references at available at https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:109c9470-855f-4696-906d-61ae770e217b.

2 Carl Wiese in 1907, with pottery described in the 1970’s by David Phillipson as the *Chifumbaze complex’; and H. A. Wieschoff in 1930, as part of the 9th Frobenius Institute expedition to Niamara; There is however an earlier report in 1915 by E.J. Wayland regarding an odd stone tool from Búzi river sent in 1913 to J. Leite de Vasconcelos (director of the Ethnographic Museum officially opened in 1906 in Lisbon).

3 Prominent members included J.R. Santos Júnior, A. Mendes Correia; Jorge and Margot Dias conducted their seminal work among the Makonde in the late 50’s.

4 van Riet Lowe, L.H. Wells and French scholar H. Breuil.

5 Major names include M. Bettencourt Dias, Lereno Barradas, Simões Alberto, Rosa de Oliveira, A. Rita-Ferreira, R. Dickenson, G. Liesegang, G. Smolla, M. Korfmann, R. Derricourt, Soares de Castro, Amaro Monteiro, C. Ervedosa and M. Ramos, among others.

6 The Unit was established by Prof. G. Soares de Carvalho and included Teresa Cruz e Silva, Ricardo and Maria da Luz T. Duarte, João Morais, all involved with the Massingir project; and briefly J. Senna Martinez (b. 1948 - d. 2022) before leaving the country in 1976. The work was published in Memórias IICT,10-B, 1974;. Professor Revil Mason provided valuable guidance from Witwatersrand University where R. Duarte and J. Morais during a two-month scholarship carried out comparative studies of archaeological collections.

7 João Morais and Ricardo T. Duarte are appointed junior lecturers of African Prehistory at the History Department, Faculty of Arts, where Teresa Cruz e Silva also lectures from 1976, in parallel with their work at the Archaeological Unit.

8 Ricardo and Maria da Luz T. Duarte pioneered the work from 1976, rescuing the National Museum of Ethnograplhy in Nampula from critical plundering of its assets. The Museum was originally created by A.J. Soares de Castro in 1956 following seminal work by Jorge and Margot Dias among the Makonde,

9 Aquino de Bragança was appointed director of the CEA and the Archaeological Unit integrated as an additional research body with João Morais as head of unit.

10 for a detailed description of the undertaking see J. Morais, The Early Farming Communities of Southern Mozambique, 1988: 48-58.

11 c.f. J.Morais, Prehistoric Research in Moçambique: the earlier research, the present projects, plans and proposals, 1976) which includes reports from T. Cruz e Silva, R. Duarte and J. Senna Martinez).

12 with agreement from director Aquino de Bragança and rector Fernando Ganhão the governance of the unit is placed under IICM’s director Pedro Alcântara and soon thereafter transferred to the Faculty of Arts (director Manuel Araújo) as a new Archaeology Department, a transition process managed by J. Morais.

13 Manyikeni is excavated by J. Morais and P. Garlake. The new researchers included Michael (b. 1949 - d. 1999) and June Stephen starting from 1976 to 1979 (before leaving for Swaziland in 1979), Paul Sinclair (b. 1949 - d. 2023) starting in 1977, previously working in Zimbabwe, who acted as principal investigator until leaving in 1980 for Uppsala University, and Leonard Adamowicz (b.1945 - d. 2020) starting in 1980, from Poland.

14 by J. Morais and P. Sinclair

15 by T. Cruz e Silva, P. Sinclair, A. Loforte and, for shorter periods, J. Morais at Chibuene, Hola-Hola, Bazaruto, Ponta Dundo and Marrape sites while concurrently M. and J. Stephen conducted survey work at Maua cave in Niassa.

16 Ana Loforte and Christian Geffray (from France) join DAA. During the academic year 1979-1980 J. Morais is away in Oxford to initiate doctoral work, and Ana Loforte replaces him during the period as head of department.

17 Work implemented by T. Cruz e Silva and P. Sinclair

18 See J. Morais “Mozambican Archaeology: Past and Present.” African Archaeological Review 2 (1984):